A Survey of the Mobile Phone-Based Interventions for Violence Prevention Among Women

Information Communication Technologies (ICT), particularly mobile phone technology, has increased the propinquity between individuals by enhancing their ability to frequently communicate with one another through different mediums, like text, audio, video, and emojis. Cell phone technology is being used to combat various social issues, including several public health-related problems such as violence against women. Over the past two decades several cellphone-based apps, including Circle of 6, MyPlan, Panic Button, and Aspire News have been developed in several countries to prevent violence against women. Anecdotal evidence suggests that these apps are effective both as violence prevention and as an intervention tool in public as well as private spaces. However, very little awareness exists among social workers about these mobile phone applications (apps), particularly the capabilities and limitations of these apps. Based on a brief survey and classification of the existing mobile phone apps designed to prevent violence against women, this paper aims to explain how these apps work, and point out their capabilities and limitations so that social workers and public health professionals can better guide their clients in using these technology-based services. It is highly recommended that social workers evaluate how their clients are affected by the use or non-use of violence prevention apps and advocate for their client’s right to digital literacy and internet access.

which teens can text message "SEX INFO" to a five-digit number from a cell phone to receive information on sexual health-related matters. Once the user sends the text message, they receive a message instructing them to text back an appropriate code related to their question (for instance, B3 for HIV prevention). Depending on the code entered, the users will receive a text message with all the information about sexual health and referral to a local sexual health organization working with youths.
Over the last decade -ever since smartphones became popular -several cell phone apps, such as bSafe, Circle of 6, Hollaback!, Panic Button, LifeLine Response, and Guardly, (Brathwaite, 2012;Jones, 2014;Rosenthal, 2013;Zraick, 2010) have been developed to address the general issue of women's safety. Typically, these smartphonebased apps enable users to send predetermined text messages to their registered emergency contacts along with the global positioning system (GPS) location and physical address by just shaking the device or pressing the panic alarm /danger alert button. A few of the smartphone apps come with features that enable users to get connected with nearby support services, such as pre-programmed hotline numbers along with the contact information of nearby police stations, hospitals, social networking sites, and other counseling services. Since most of these apps do not have user evaluation built, very little can be said about the effectiveness of these apps based merely on the number of downloads (Westmarland et al., 2013).
A study interviewing 10 women residing at a domestic violence shelter in the United States revealed that not knowing how to securely and privately use the social networking sites was primarily responsible for women refraining from using their mobile phones (Dimond, Fiesler, & Bruckman, 2011) even though they admitted that it was a valuable tool for seeking social support. A randomized controlled trial study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the MyPlan app, an interactive safety decision-making webbased and smartphone application (app) for college women survivors of intimate-partner violence and their friends. This study found that after 12 months of using this app, the percentage of students experiencing physical or sexual abuse declined, and the support groups of survivors of violence were more prepared to help their friend leave the relationship safely (Glass, Eden, Bloom, & Perrin, 2010). Users of the MyPlan app also pointed out that the electronic medium of communication was preferred, and not having to discuss "face-to-face" at the counseling center reduced the social desirability bias in their responses (Alhusen, Bloom, Clough, & Glass, 2015;Eden et al., 2014;Glass et al., 2015;Glass et. al., 2017;Lindsay et al., 2013).
The discourse about using Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) such as mobile phones and the internet to tackle the issue of violence against women has remained slanted with a heavy focus on the negative effects of technology on the lives of individuals, such as invasion of privacy, confidentiality, and the technology-facilitated marginalization and sexual victimization of individuals, such as cyberbullying, cyberstalking, sexting and cyberharassment (Dimond et al., 2011;Henry & Powell, 2015;Martinez-Pecino & Durán 2016;Mason & Magnet, 2012). However, it cannot be negated that much of the technology-related problems stem from users not knowing how the issues of security, surveillance, privacy, and confidentiality are tackled in each of these apps (Mason & Magnet, 2012).
Social work scholars also increasingly argue that technology-based interventions can enhance social work practice, as it ensures continuity, client engagement, affordability and accessibility of services (Craig & Lorenzo, 2014;Ramsey & Montgomery, 2014). However, since many disenfranchised and marginalized communities do not have access to ICTs or the internet, scholars have argued that social workers should actively advocate for policy and program initiatives that addresses these infrastructural gaps related to technology (Perron, Taylor, Glass, & Margerum-Leys, 2010). In 2017, four prominent social work organizations, the National Association of Social Work (NASW), Association for Social Work Boards (ASWB), Council for Social Work Education (CSWE), and CSWA (Clinical Social Work Association) recognized that technology is transforming the social work practice arena, particularly the nature of the client-worker relationship, and came together to adopt a uniform set of technology standards focused on addressing issues that arise with social worker and client use of technology (NASW, 2017b). The NASW and the ASWB Standards for Technology and Social Work Practice recommend that "social workers should be proficient in the technological skills and tools required for competent and ethical practice and for seeking appropriate training and consultations to stay current with emerging technologies" (as cited by Lopez, 2014, p. 821). Yet, most social work undergraduate and graduate programs do not prepare their students to achieve digital literacy (Craig & Lorenzo, 2014;Robbins, Coe Regan, Williams, Smyth, & Bogo, 2016), defined by Hague (2010) as " the ability to participate in a range of critical and creative practices that involve understanding, sharing and creating meaning with different kinds of technology and media" (p. 3).
The knowledge and awareness among social workers about the new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), and in particular cellphone applications, how they work, what are their capabilities and limitations, and how they can be meaningfully used to enhance the quality of lives of their clients remain limited (Parrott & Madoc-Jones, 2008;Perron, Taylor, Glass, & Margerum-Leys, 2010). The findings from a qualitative study aimed at examining domestic violence service provider's needs and perceptions of using technology found that service providers have limited experience and knowledge about technological advances which resulted in them feeling anxious and uncertain about their abilities to use and learn new technological advances. Therefore, ongoing ICT related training and support needs to be provided to social workers for them to be able to effectively address technology-related concerns and questions that may arise in therapy for their clients and themselves (Murray, Nemati, White, Chow, & Pow, 2015).
This article provides a survey, comparison, and classification of the existing cell phone-based violence prevention/intervention applications (apps). First, we present an overview and classification of violence prevention apps. Second, we discuss the metrics of evaluation we used to compare and contrast the various violence prevention apps. Third, we provide a brief overview of how these apps work, their capabilities, limitations, and focus area. Fourth, we offer an analysis of what features of the apps work well and what aspects need improvement. Finally, we conclude by discussing the implications of these violence prevention apps for social work practice and future research.

Overview and Classification
The existing mobile phone-based apps designed to prevent violence against women can be classified into three broad categories: a) Crowdsourcing reporting apps, b) Emergency assistance apps, and c) Self-assessment/ learning apps. The crowdsourcing reporting apps attempt to tie violence to users' space/location (geography) enabling them to report incidents of violence, and then put them on a map to visualize the violence "hotspots." These apps not only help collect data on violent incidents in the community, but they may be used by local law enforcement in deciding where to concentrate their surveillance efforts, and by ordinary individuals to determine which spaces to avoid. The second category of apps is the emergency assistance apps, which is by far the largest category. These apps have been designed to enhance the personal safety of users. To use these apps effectively, users must first enter contact information for their preferred emergency contacts. Then, when users are in an emergency situation, they can trigger an SOS alert which sends messages to their emergency contacts. Some apps also allow users to call emergency dispatch when the emergency alert is triggered. The third category of apps is the self-help learning/assessment apps. These apps are designed to increase users' understanding of violence and also engage in self-learning and self-assessment of their risk of abuse. They may also link users to supportive services, including lawyers, social and community workers, shelters, and clinics.
The following section discusses the evaluation metric used to compare and contrast the various categories of violence prevention apps. Prior researchers have used a similar metric to evaluate mobile phone apps developed in the other fields such as suicide prevention (Aguirre et al., 2013) and unintended pregnancy prevention (Mangone, Lebrun, & Muessig, 2016).

Evaluation Metric for Violence Prevention Apps
1. Stated Purpose -The stated purpose of the app is an important metric because it clarifies to users what life problems they can solve using these apps. Mancini & O'Reilly (2013) argue that the socio-cultural, and political contexts vary widely among communities, and therefore one technological solution may not be equally effective across different communities. Therefore, the context driven nature of the stated purpose of the apps is an important metric to judge the usability of the app. 2. Privacy -Another important consideration for violence prevention apps includes how much personal information users are required to disclose in order to use the app for its stated purpose. For example, a lengthy registration procedure, or a registration procedure that asks several personal questions (e.g., name, date of birth, location) from the users can be a strong deterrent in using the app. There can be even more subtle deterrents to the use of apps. For example, a well-known icon of the app may be a problem for survivors of domestic violence who live close to the abusers and are always under surveillance by their abusers. Therefore, the apps' ability to report incidents anonymously and the password or PIN features are a critical factor in enhancing the effectiveness of these apps (Aguirre et al., 2013). 3. Ease of use -This metric assesses the understandability of the app. For example, if the user wants to report an incident, they should have the option to either write a text description of the incident or submit audio or video report. In addition, if users have to fill too many required fields before submitting the report, then it may act as a deterrent. Therefore, the option to select 'fields' that are pertinent to their situation will prove crucial in enhancing the usability of these apps. 4. Geography -To be usable, an app should fit the socio-cultural profile of the place, including language requirements. As a result, apps may not be as useful for other geographical regions. In addition, what languages are supported in the app? 5. Access to supportive services/resources -Access to supportive services is an essential aspect of violence prevention apps, especially emergency-assistance apps. Some apps may only connect to user's friends and family, while others can connect to private security, law enforcement, and first responders. 6. Affordability-Cost is an important consideration since the individuals who are at an increased risk of violence are often socially and economically marginalized individuals (Heerde & Hemphill, 2019;Walls et al., 2019). Therefore, it is critical to assess if there is an additional cost associated with using the app. For instance, while an app could be free, essential and helpful features may be locked behind a paywall, requiring users to make an in-app purchase to unlock premium features.

Survey of Mobile Phone Violence Prevention Apps
Crowdsourcing reporting apps. Crowdsourcing reporting apps allow users to access a website via a smartphone or computer. Once on the designated site, users can fill out a violence incident report. The incident report is then logged in real-time through an interactive map and enables identification of "hot spots"-referred to as places with the most frequent reports of violence. Crowdsourcing reporting apps serve four purposes. First, they create a database of information about gender-based violence incidents happening in cities or towns across select countries. Second, to help prevent violence, the institutions collecting the data can use it to advocate for increased patrols by local law enforcement authorities in what emerges as the "hot spots". Third, users can access these interactive maps and get an understanding of places that can be dangerous, or violence-prone as the maps identify the "hot spots" for violence. Finally, reports can be submitted by victims as well as by bystanders witnessing the incident. For instance, I've got your back campaign was launched by Hollaback! in collaboration with Green Dot to encourage bystanders to upload their anecdotes as witnesses to street harassment, allowing bystanders to show their support for people sharing their stories of violence (Livingston, Wagner, Diaz, & Liu, 2012). Table 1 provides a comparative overview of four projects using crowdsourcing reporting apps to gain a nuanced understanding of the issue of violence against women in their communities. For instance, these apps allow for clarity to emerge on who are the perpetrators, what type of violence gets frequently reported, and in which sites these violent incidents are being reported. Please note that, even after our best efforts, the list below may not be exhaustive, but we believe we have covered all the major variations of the apps to examine their strengths and limitations. Internet access fee SMS alert-based Emergency assistance apps. Numerous cell phone applications (apps) have been designed to enhance the personal safety of the users. The way to operate these apps is first to enter information about the users' emergency contacts so that the app can contact them when an emergency arises. When users press the "help" button within the app, it will send out automated SMS alert messages to the listed emergency contacts along with the GPS coordinates of the users. Some of the apps also have the feature to automatically connect users with first-line responders, such as the police, firefighters, and medical personnel when pressing the "help" button within the app. Table 2 provides an overview of the different types of SMS alert-based emergency assistance apps for violence prevention and intervention. We have included many different models of cell phone apps to facilitate a more in-depth understanding among social workers about the various ways in which these cell phone apps can be designed to address the specific needs of their clientele. However, by no means is the list exhaustive.
Self-help learning/assessment Apps. The last category reviewed in this survey are apps that are designed to increase the user's understanding of violence and also engage in self-learning and self-assessment of their risk of abuse/danger in the relationship. Table 3 lists some of these self-help learning/assessment apps. We have included different types of self-help learning/assessment apps to facilitate an understanding among social workers of how apps can be designed and used to promote education and learning among their clients about dating violence, domestic abuse, and healthy relationships.

Critical Analysis of the Violence Prevention Apps
Violence against women is a highly sensitive and stigmatized issue. The term "violence against women" (VAW) falls on a continuum, and refers to several different types of violences including, domestic violence, rape, IPV, sexual harassment, or any other term referenced typically in the mainstream anti-violence literature. Hooks (2000) argues the terminology violence against women/patriarchal violence denotes the connection between acts of violence and the systemic structures of oppression. In other words, violence experienced by women both inside and outside the home is linked with and sustained by the other matrices of domination, including racism, sexism, homophobia/transphobia, ableism, and neoliberalism (Collins,1999;Hooks, 2000;Mason & Magnet, 2012). However, in many cultures, including the United States, India, Egypt, Cambodia, United Kingdom, and Syria, women tend to internalize the blame and shame for their experience with violence/abuse. This prevents women from stepping forward to take action against the perpetrators of violence (Kalra & Bhugra, 2013;Overstreet & Quinn, 2013). Therefore, it is crucial that violence prevention interventions (both cell phone apps-based interventions as well as traditional interventions) aim to empower their users by reducing the culture of victim-blaming that exists in these societies. For instance, both #MeToo and Time's Up movement are rare examples of `ICTs-based interventions that have successfully reframed the understanding of violence against women to be a social and cultural problem (Hostler & O'Neil, 2018). In the following section, we use the evaluation metric discussed previously to critically evaluate the three categories of cell phone-based violence prevention interventions. Asks user's preset contacts to walk them home with "Follow Me" feature of app, which sends live GPS trace to friends Timer Mode allows user to program automatic alarm which will trigger if users fail to check in within specified time. "I am Here" can be used by users to let their preselected contacts know where they are right now. 'Fake Call' allows users to make phone ring whenever situation demands. Users can define who call should be from.
Unlike other apps, contacts entered by users as 'guardians' in personal safety network are sent an invitation to let them know guardian's role in app & they can accept or decline to serve as user's guardian.
Users cannot directly initiate contact with police or other social services. A premium service is available for a fee ($20 annually or $30 for two years), & goes beyond alerting your contacts/guardians by providing 24x7 monitoring by professional security service centers. (Please Note: Premium service is currently available only in Norway, Sweden, & South Africa. Will be launched in US). No access to supportive services, such as counseling centers, social service agencies Street-based violence prevention app Individuals at risk of experiencing violence https://getbsafe.com/ (b-Safe, 2016)

Response, USA
Fee-based personal safety app allows users to trigger an alarm in event of an emergency or untoward situation. If user within a stipulated time does not disarm alarm, app automatically notifies authorities & their emergency contacts with links to their last GPS location.
During an emergency, if user cannot be reached to verify their safety after setting alarm, 24x7 Lifeline Response call center operators informs emergency dispatchers (police, medical, fire department) with all location details of user & ensures that emergency services reach user. Allows users to deactivate alarm in case it was triggered accidentally. Has secret alarm feature which makes it seems that app has been disabled, but in reality, it automatically dials 911 & prompts user to call emergency contacts/lifelines that they had specified in app. Also, a way to tell emergency aids & lifeline response verification center that user is in trouble & that they shouldn't call user to verify. Smartphone-based personal safety app allows user's family & friends to know about their whereabouts in case they get in trouble. App lets users set an alert timer on their phone for any single activity/ situations. Alarm timer can be deactivated by user alone as it is password protected. If not disabled by user, app will inform via email & text their emergency contacts with exact location details of users.
App has option to discreetly raise a panic alert alarm using power button. 4-digit pin code for ending tracked sessions. Reminds users that their session is due to expire in 5 minutes with an onscreen message. Alerts from StaySafe are sent to emergency contacts when phone is switched off, or battery runs out of power.
Smartphone only app; cannot operate on a basic phone. One-time fee of $6.99 to purchase app. Potential additional cost of purchasing data plans or internet. Users report that only one emergency contact can be alerted. Does not give users option to establish contact with law enforcement authorities or 911 directly. No access to supportive services, such as counseling centers, social service agencies  Crowdsourcing reporting apps. The crowdsourcing reporting apps presented in Table 1 are useful in providing a more nuanced understanding of the reasons, patterns, and mechanisms through which violence spreads in any given region. Crowdsourcing apps are a beneficial tool in a society where violence against women is dismissed, negated or yet to be recognized as a systemic issue, as witnessed in the case of Egypt using HarassMap App (Peuchaud, 2014). In contexts where culture of silence prevails, the #Metoo & # TimesUp movement serves as a useful example of how crowdsourcing reporting platforms can not only raise public awareness about an interrelated systemic issue of workplace sexual harassment and gender inequality but also some creative solutions to these complex problems (Choo, Byington, Johnson, & Jagsi, 2019). For instance, a study aimed at interviewing people who contributed stories of harassment online using Hollaback! reported that online storytelling had a transformative effect on the cognitive and emotional experience and their understanding of the problem (Dimond, Dye, LaRose, & Bruckman, 2013). This study noted that a shift occurred in the minds of women about the knowledge of street harassment as a larger problem tied to their right to public space and freedom. The study also revealed that online sharing of stories resulted in participants proactively responding and learning how to tackle the issue of street sexual harassment in the future.
Many of the reasons for non-reporting of violence, such as privacy concerns, fear of reprisal, sympathy for the offender, police leniency (Felson, Messner, Hoskin, & Deane, 2002), embarrassment/shame, and the incident being too trivial to report (Birdsey & Snowball, 2013) are well addressed when the users are given the option to make an anonymous report of the incident. For instance, HarrassMap allows users to report and share their sexual harassment experience anonymously and also give users access to resources and support from the online community (Young, 2014). As per the report evaluating the HarassMap initiative aimed at ending the social acceptability of violence in Egypt, the online reporting mechanisms had 88,851 visits per year and received an average of 40 reports per month, with 700 accurate reports in a year (HarassMap, 2012). Therefore, anonymity in reporting is a critical feature that needs to be built into the violence prevention apps for individuals to come forward and share their stories of violence. Table 1 indicates that the crowdsourcing reporting apps are designed with the capabilities of not only making incident reports but also linking affected individuals with appropriate services, such as police, legal counseling, online support groups, and available local resources. If users do not perceive any direct benefit, then they will not make reports of violence. For instance, a study examining the barriers to reporting of domestic violence incidents to police found that victims were less likely to report if the police are not sufficiently understanding or proactive in their handling of domestic violence cases (Birdsey & Snowball, 2013). Another study conducted by Cornell University and Hollaback! found that taking action "generally has a positive influence on targets emotional response to the experience of street harassment" (Livingston et al., 2012, p. 3) as it can help victims avoid the stigma and proactively seek help. Collectively, these findings suggest that users are more likely to report violence if they directly benefit from making such reports, such as gaining direct access to existing resources and information on violence prevention in their location.
Another aspect crucial to improving the usability of these apps is the required reporting format of the incident. If the form for reporting is too complicated, or if there are too many required questions posed to the victims, or if the format is too rigid, that is only written reports are accepted, it may cater to the needs of only literate groups. For instance, if users can report the incident using video, audio or images, then it is possible for users who are not so literate to make a report and avail the services. Also, mandating a particular type of information can act as a deterrent depending on the situation. For instance, for project Women Under Siege, it is mandatory to describe the incident, a title for the event, type of harm, and their location to make a report (Women Under Siege, 2015). However, Hollaback! does not mandate any form of information but instead allows users to provide only information that they choose to share (Hollaback!, 2016).
The geographical coverage of these apps to users is also determined by the language supported in these apps. For instance, the Open Institute's gender-based violence project used "Ushahidi map-based tool" in the Khmer language to reach out to a broader audience in Indonesia. Similarly, projects like Women Under Siege, Hollaback, and Harrasmap support local languages have greater reach. A report titled The Impact of App Translations, prepared by Distomo Analytics (2012) showed that localizing iPhone apps by including native languages in the text feature led to a 128% rise in downloads. Availability of different languages is particularly important when working with culturally diverse populations in the United States.
Further, most app developers realize that cost is a significant barrier to the usage of apps; as a result, most apps are free to download. However, the use of apps often results in the use of data, which is a crucial concern because data plan expenses may discourage use. As a result, the privilege of being able to use these apps may remain in the domain of an "elite" section of society. Marginalized groups, such as poor, vulnerable women, who are at an increased risk of facing violence, are less likely to be able to afford the extra cost. The availability of unlimited data plans for a subsidized rate by the government for socially and economically marginalized groups may alleviate this problem in the future. Table 2 indicates that the emergency assistance apps can serve as an intervention tool. For instance, some of the apps like Guard My Angel, ReactMobile, BSafe and StaySafe's "Follow Me" or "Watch over Me" feature allows users to let their emergency contacts know their whereabouts when venturing out alone. These apps act as a strong deterrent once the perpetrator gets to know that the app has contacted 911 or some other emergency contacts. While these emergency assistance apps may be effective against street violence, they may not work against domestic violence.

Emergency assistance apps.
Apps like Aspire News are designed to meet the needs of women in abusive intimatepartner relationships. Some of the obstacles that users, particularly the social worker's client might face in making use of these apps are as follows: First, the registration requirements can deter some users from using the app as most of the apps require users to register with an email or Facebook account. Second, access to the apps becomes a real issue if users have to incur additional cost, as some of the apps like LifeLine Response, BSafe, and StaySafe have a monthly subscription fee, a one-time fee, or charge users for their premium features like "Follow Me" or sending alerts to first-line responders. All of the apps listed in Table 2 are designed for users who can afford smartphones and data plans which cost more than traditional phones. In addition, if the perpetrator also has complete control over the victim's finances, then a line item on a credit card bill for something like "StaySafe" could put a victim in more danger if their perpetrator notices it.
The third factor limiting the usability of cell phone apps is the issue of literacy as most of these apps are written solely in English. Non-English speaking individuals may not be able to use the apps.
Fourth, since apps are typically not designed to work across the multiple smartphone platforms, such as Android, iPhone, Blackberry, or Windows, it can be challenging for users to come up with their list of trusted emergency contacts that are on the same platform. The trusted contacts might not have smartphones that support their software platforms.
Fifth, it is essential to assess the safety of the users when reviewing various SMS alertbased emergency assistance apps. Like Panic Button and Aspire News, apps should be disguised. Users should have the option to choose between whether they want the alert to be concealed or not depending on the situation. Also, users should have the choice of establishing direct contact with law enforcement like Pukar, Guardly, Guard My Angel, LifeLine Response, and React Mobile.
Finally, to help increase the safety of individuals, there needs to be access to supportive services which only EyeWatch, Circle of Six, Panic Button and Aspire News App features. In general, the names of the app should also be covert and culturally appropriate names, like Pukar in India which means "Shout out" and is a very generic name. Table 3 shows how interactive smartphone apps can be designed to increase awareness about domestic abuse and the resources and support available in the local community to address domestic abuse, cyberstalking, and dating violence. This is quite a constructive use of cell phone technology as much of the education that happens in face-to-face interactions with social workers can be done through the medium of cell phones -minus the associated feeling of being judged. Apps like MyPlan, Love is Not Abuse, and Bright Sky are designed to educate users about the dangers of unhealthy relationships and the warning signs of abusive relationships and how to help victims of abuse. Social workers can direct their clients to these resources in case they find their clients are reluctant to broach the topic due to fears of being judged or further victimized. The Evidentiary Abuse Affidavit (iEAA) App goes a step further by helping build a strong legal case against the abuser (Document the Abuse, 2016). This app enables users to create safe, reliable and effective evidentiary documentation about abuse, which can be used for the prosecution of perpetrators. This is a very unique feature of this app as it eases the process of collecting evidence for survivors, but may be prohibitively expensive. While the MyPlan app is a research-based app developed with input from survivors of abuse and includes the Danger Assessment Survey (Alhusen et al., 2015), this app is currently available only in Spanish and English. On the contrary, Bright Sky app is available to users in English, Urdu, Punjabi, and Polish. For broader reach, these apps need to be made available in local languages.

Implications for Social Work Practice
Based on the description of the varied mobile phone-based violence prevention apps, we recommend that social workers take the lead in evaluating the impacts of the technology on their clients, mainly how use or non-use of these mobile phone apps are affecting their clients. The NASW Code of Ethics states that …social workers should assess the client's suitability and capacity for electronic and remote services. Social workers should consider the clients' intellectual, emotional, and physical ability to use technology to receive services and the clients' ability to understand the potential benefits, risks, and limitations of such services. If clients do not wish to use services provided through technology, social workers should help them identify alternate methods of service (NASW, 2017a, Standard 1.03 g, p. 8) While it is clear from the review of these apps that affordability of smartphone apps might be an issue for economically and socially marginalized clients, the NASW Code of Ethics also states that "social workers should act to expand choice and opportunity for all people, with special regard for vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited people and groups" (NASW, 2017a, Standard 6.04 b, p. 30), who are highly prone to experiencing violence and should enjoy the right to affordable internet access and digital literacy. Social workers should advocate for the use of the crowdsourcing reporting apps at the agency level to develop evidence-based violence prevention campaigns and programs. Rather than staying focused on survivors of violence, social workers can raise community awareness among bystanders about these apps so that they can intervene and act in ways that would show direct support to the survivors of violence. Also, social workers, through their governing bodies such as NASW, CSWE, and CSWA advocate for funding to provide coupon codes that allow people to get the apps at a discounted price so it's more accessible to more people.
Scholars have argued that whatever social workers do in their face-to-face interaction with clients, can now be done online using e-therapy (Santhiveeran, 2009), online counseling/therapy (Rochlen, Zack, & Speyer, 2004;Ross, 2011;Shaw & Shaw, 2006), and telehealth (Peddle, 2007). The literature also acknowledges several benefits of technology-based interventions in practice, such as enhanced inter-professional communication and clinical decision-making, streamlined case management and improved client access to data, rapid assessment, and clinical interventions, and enhanced client selfmanagement and self-efficacy (Craig & Lorenzo, 2014). The benefits of technology-based interventions can be reaped only if social workers are trained and educated on the ethical, technical, and cultural issues that come in the way of implementation of these apps. For instance, social work practitioners working in the field of violence against women can use technology to innovatively meet the challenging and complex demands of their job. When working with clients residing in rural areas or who would otherwise not seek formal services, social workers can guide them to the self-help assessment/learning apps like MyPlan, Love is Not Abuse, Bright Sky, and Evidentiary Abuse Affidavit (iEAA) App. Hawkins, Pearce, Skeith, Dimitruk, and Roche (2009) found that when social workers used hand-held technological devices as opposed to paper-and-pencil questionnaires to screen for domestic abuse and neglect while out in the community, there was a significant reduction in collection of redundant domestic abuse data and more effective mobilization of resources, initiation of same-day in-depth social work assessment, and referrals to appropriate community agencies. Further, in the case of victims of rape and sexual assault, the availability of crowdsourcing reporting apps can make it easier for clients to take the first step of anonymously reporting the incident and seeking online support and services without the fear of being judged.
Social work practitioners should be made aware that a one-size-fits-all approach will not work and to keep in mind the unique needs of their clientele when considering programs, policies, and practices involving the use of technology (NASW, 2017b). For instance, Circle of 6 is a personal safety app designed for college students and is based on the assumption that individuals using this app will have six friends to add in the circle. This app might not apply to clients who are stigmatized and living a life of isolation and fear, such as women in the sex trade or survivors of trafficking who might not have six friends. As a result, social workers need to educate themselves first about the purpose of the app and make clients aware of the possible benefits and limitations of each app in their therapy. Social workers providing counseling to clients at risk of high violence can ask them to make use of the emergency assistance apps listed in Table 2 and opt to be listed as their emergency contacts or call guardians so that they can take immediate steps to remedy the situation. This is particularly useful for clients who have had previous brushes with law enforcement or criminal histories and may fear contacting the police authorities. Social work agencies can also create a circle of support for their vulnerable and isolated clients by asking them to watch out for each other through these emergency assistance apps.

Implications for Future Research
Unlike MyPlan -an interactive safety decision app for college women in abusive dating relationships and their friends (Alhusen et al., 2015) and iEAA app, there are very few apps that are grounded in research that is based on the input of survivors of different types of violence and targeted population. Therefore, future research should evaluate the effectiveness of these mobile phone-based applications for violence prevention in different settings and target populations. Social workers should actively study the consumer perspective on app-based violence prevention interventions, particularly how mobile apps have changed the lives of their clients and how they prefer the services to be delivered. We recommend that the design and development of mobile phone-based interventions be based on the input and feedback from social workers with expertise in the field of violence prevention as they will be better able to speak to the risks, safety issues, and socioeconomic challenges of their clients with regards to using ICTs.

Conclusion
This article surveyed mobile phone-based interventions for violence prevention and has offered critical insights on the purpose, benefits, and challenges associated with the use of mobile phone apps-based interventions for violence prevention. The different types of apps for violence prevention and intervention include crowdsourcing reporting apps, SMS alert-based emergency assistance apps, and self-help learning/assessment apps. Each app is designed to address the issue of violence at different levels. Crowdsourcing apps aim to increase community awareness as well as community ownership for dealing with the problem of violence, whereas SMS alert-based emergency assistance apps and selfeducation apps tackle the issue of abuse at the individual level. Social workers working in the field of violence prevention need to be aware that through these apps they can monitor their client's status in real time and respond rapidly to clients with resources and support in crises. Many times, a delay in response time, paperwork, long travel times, and the fear of being judged act as barriers for clients in accessing formal institutional services, such as counseling centers, and criminal justice interventions such as protective orders or arrest warrants. The review of these mobile phone apps indicates that the use of technology can enable clients to access violence prevention resources without the fear of being judged and can be instrumental in creating a secure support network for victims. As a result, social workers responsible for conducting the biopsychosocial assessments with clients should also evaluate the technology needs of their clients and their comfort with using technology, particularly their digital literacy skills and challenges (NASW, 2017b).
Additionally, social workers can play a crucial role in collaborating with ICT professionals in the design and development of socially and culturally relevant mobilephone-based interventions that take into consideration the unique needs of their diverse clients, such as the issue of affordability, language, and the preference for different medium of electronic communication (interactive voicemail, text, email, phone, video). Since social workers typically work with economically and socially marginalized groups and are responsible for advocating for social change and social justice issues experienced by these groups, they are well-positioned to leverage their client's position, enhance the clientworker relationship, and fulfill the promise of equal and ethical digital citizenship (Henry & Powell, 2016). Social workers can play a significant role in advocating for low -cost internet and subsidized smartphone devices for the economically marginalized population as they have a right to digital literacy and internet access. In addition, social workers can also rally for funding to work with app developers to provide a low-cost or free download of the app for those who may not be able to afford the app costs.